How Salt Melts Ice and Prevents Water From Freezing

Salt melts ice essentially because adding salt lowers the freezing point of the water. How does this melt ice? Well, it doesnt, unless there is a little water available with the ice. The good news is you dont need a pool of water to achieve the effect. Ice typically is coated with a thin film of liquid water, which is all it takes. Pure water freezes at 32 °F (0 °C). Water with salt (or any other substance in it) will freeze at some lower temperature. Just how low this temperature will be depends on the de-icing agent. If you put salt on ice in a situation where the temperature will never get up to the new freezing point of the salt-water solution, you wont see any benefit. For example, tossing table salt (sodium chloride) onto ice when its 0 °F wont do anything more than coat the ice with a layer of salt. On the other hand, if you put the same salt on ice at 15 °F, the salt will be able to prevent melting ice from re-freezing. Magnesium chloride works down to 5 °F while calcium chloride works down to -20 °F. Key Takeaways: How Salt Melts Ice Salt melts ice and helps keep water from re-freezing by lowering the freezing point of water. This phenomenon is called freezing point depression.Salt only helps if there is a little bit of liquid water available. The salt has to dissolve into its ions in order to work.Different types of salt are used as de-icing agents. The more particles (ions) formed when a salt dissolves, the more it lowers freezing point. How It Works Salt (NaCl) dissolves into its ions in water, Na and Cl-.  The ions diffuse throughout the water and block the water molecules from getting close enough together and in the right orientation to organize into the solid form (ice). Ice absorbs energy from its surroundings to undergo the phase transition from solid to liquid. This could cause pure water to re-freeze, but the salt in the water prevents it from turning into ice. However, the water gets colder than it was. The temperature can drop below the freezing point of pure water. Adding any impurity to a liquid lowers its freezing point. The nature of the compound does not matter, but the number of particles it breaks into in the liquid is important. The more particles that are produced, the greater the freezing point depression. So, dissolving sugar in water also lowers the freezing point of water. Sugar simply dissolves into single sugar molecules, so its effect on freezing point is less than you would get adding an equal amount of salt, which breaks into two particles. Salts that break into more particles, like magnesium chloride (MgCl2) have an even greater effect on freezing point. Magnesium chloride dissolves into three ions -- one magnesium cation and two chloride anions. On the flip side, adding a tiny amount of insoluble particulates can actually help water freeze at a higher temperature. While there is a bit of freezing point depression, its localized near the particles. The particles act as nucleation sites that allow for ice formation. This is the premise behind the formation of snowflakes in clouds and how ski resorts make snow when its slightly warming than freezing. Use Salt to Melt Ice - Activities You can demonstrate the effect of freezing point depression yourself, even if you dont have an icy sidewalk handy. One way is to make your own ice cream in a baggie, where adding salt to water produces a mixture so cold it can freeze your treat.If you just want to see an example of how cold ice plus salt can get, mix 33 ounces of salt with 100 ounces of crushed ice or snow. Be careful! The mixture will be about -6 °F (-21 °C), which is cold enough to give you frostbite if you hold it too long.Gain a better understanding of freezing point depression by examining the effect of dissolving different substances in water and noting the temperature required to freeze it. Good examples of substances to compare are table salt (sodium chloride), calcium chloride, and sugar. See if you can dissolve equal masses of each substance in the water in order to get a fair comparison. Sodium chloride breaks into two ions in water. Calcium chloride forms three ions in water. Sugar dissolves in water, but it doesnt break into any ions. All of these substances will lower the freezing point of water.Take the experiment a step further by exploring boiling point elevation, another colligative property of matter. Adding sugar, salt, or calcium chloride will change the temperature at which water boils. Is the effect measurable?

Role of Youth in Peace - 1678 Words

Mahatma Gandhi used the term â€Å"Satyagraha† to refer to a kind of active but absolutely non-violent resistance to oppression. In his words: â€Å"Truth (satya) implies love, and firmness (agraha) engenders and therefore serves as a synonym for force. I thus began to call the Indian movement Satyagraha, that is to say, the Force which is born of Truth and Love or non-violence, and gave up the use of the phrase â€Å"passive resistance†, in connection with it, so much so that even in English writing we often avoided it and used instead the word â€Å"satyagraha†... [Satyagraha in South Africa, 1926 from Johnson, p. 73., (found on Wikipedia, Satyagraha)] To counter the hatred which exists on BOTH sides of the Israeli-Palestine conflict I call on all†¦show more content†¦(read more) Privacy Type: Open: All content is public. Preparation for Life in Peace: The Role of Youth Statement to the International Year of Peace Seminar for the Asia, Pacific and Western Asia Regions Bangkok,Thailand 20-24 May, 1985 The Bahà ¡Ãƒ ­ International Community would like to make a few comments on the significant ways in which youth, with its idealism and energy, can help fulfill the aim of the Charter of the United Nations to establish universal peace; and to suggest that the International Year of Peace Secretariat give special attention in its proposed programme for IYP to the ways in which young people can, through their creativity and drive, not only be seized with the vision of a world society incorporating the rich diversity of human characteristics and cultures, but also recognize their most valuable role in achieving world unity and world peace. Drawing on the experience of Bahà ¡Ãƒ ­ youth from over 2000 ethnic backgrounds in more than 160 independent countries, the Bahà ¡Ãƒ ­ International Community suggests the following ways in which youth can hasten to bring about a lasting world peace and build a world civilization: I. By developing an understanding and conviction of the principle of the organic oneness of humanity, and by expressing this belief through action. Science and religion haveShow MoreRelatedThe Peace Domestic Violence Agency1315 Words   |  6 PagesThe PEACE Domestic Violence Agency (PEACE) has a mission of reducing the victim trauma, empower the survivors, and lastly, promote the recovery of the victims in the city of Portland. PEACE does this through the use of the direct services by trying to reduce the incidence of sexual assault and domestic violence through education all while striving to challenge societal norms and beliefs that condone and perpetuate violence in the community. 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Impacts of Rupee Appreciation/Depreciation on Import Free Essays

string(111) " funds to safer haven currencies and better investment opportunities, the INR had no other choice but to fall\." INTRODUCTION CURRENCY APPRECIATION:- An increase in the value of one currency in terms of another. Currencies appreciate against each other for various reasons, including capital inflows and the state of a country’s current account. Typically, a Forex trader trades a currency pair in the hopes of currency appreciation of the base currency against the counter currency. We will write a custom essay sample on Impacts of Rupee Appreciation/Depreciation on Import or any similar topic only for you Order Now CURRENCY DEPRICIATION:- A decrease in the  value  of a  currency  with respect to other currencies. This means that the depreciated currency is worth fewer units of some other currency. While depreciation means a reduction in value, it can be advantageous as it makes  exports  in the depreciated currency less  expensive. For example, suppose one unit of Currency A is worth one unit of Currency B. If Currency A depreciates such that it becomes worth half of one unite of Currency B, then exports denominated in Currency A are only half as expensive when trading in a Currency B market. SIGNIFICANCE:- * When a country’s exports are high, the buyers of these exports need its currency to pay for those exports. When the country’s central bank increases interest rates, people will want that currency to deposit in the banks to earn that higher interest rate. * When employment and per capita income in a country increase, the demand for its goods and services increases, along with demand for that country’s currency in the local market. * Demand for any country’s currency on the foreign exchange market is determined by demand for that countryâ⠂¬â„¢s exports of goods and services and by changes in foreign investment in that country. This is because when foreigners buy another country’s exports of goods or services they must pay for these in the currency of the exporting country. * In the same way, Supply of any country’s currency on the foreign exchange market is determined by that country’s imports of goods and services and by its investment in other countries. * Thus when the demand for a currency rises its price goes up and it becomes costlier. *   An increase in exports of a country will lead to an increase in demand for the currency and thus the value rises. *   Rapid domestic growth increases the demand for mports, while slow or no growth with foreign economies can cause a decline in demand for the country’s exports. * If prices in both countries remain the same, depreciation will make foreign goods relatively more expensive to you, leading to a fall in imports. It also means that, even if prices remain the same, your goods will be cheaper to foreigners. They will buy more o f your goods and exports will rise. As a result, your country’s  net exports will increase. * The devaluation of the dollar will have a positive impact on the importers, while it will have adverse effect on the exporters. Importers of goods and services will be getting the goods and services by paying less THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:- Currency depreciation is not at all good for economy of a country. Government always keeps an eye on currency fluctuation. More depreciation can cause major loss to a country. All this is related to export and import of a country. If a currency depreciates, it is the exporters who make good profit, where as importers are on the losing side. Depreciation discourages purchases of imported goods stimulating demand for domestically manufactured goods. The governments worldwide monitor appreciation and depreciation by using powerful tools like the base interest rates, which are usually set by the country’s central bank. Many a times this tool is often used to intentionally depreciate the currency rates to encourage exports. However, this can cause major damage to imports. Always a balance has to be maintained between export and import. Within a span of 5 year, the value of INR has significantly increased from around 40 to 54. 24 with respect to dollar. Indian economy is among the fastest growing economies of the world. The appreciation of the rupees against the dollar would be another giant sign towards its economic prosperity and augmentation. However, the economic epidemics like poverty, unemployment etc. , could not be dealt in the short-run. In the past one year, the dollar has dropped by around 15 per cent against Indian rupees. This reveals that positive or negative impact on volume of export or import would be around 15 per cent, which cannot be over looked as the exporters are suffering losses, whereas importer are on gain. However, the impact will remain until there is depreciation of dollar against rupees. If it continues, then a great change can be expected on a long run in international trade arena. Another impact would be the fantasy of dollar has been losing ground day by day. From analyses made it clear that earlier people were, fascinate about dollar due to its value against Indian rupees. However, the scenario has completely changed. Those, who were planning to move to US for job, now might plan to settle in Britain, as British economy is one of the strongest economies in the world REASONS BEHIND INR DEPRECIATION (SINCE AUGUST 2011) Since the transition from fixed exchange rate regime to market determined exchange rate regime in March, 1993, the INR value with respect to the United States Dollar [USD] had decreased manifold (Dua Ranjan, 2010). The primary reasons that catalyzed the INR fall could be the increased trade between other countries. Post liberalization, the country witnessed an ever-increasing flux in the foreign inflows particularly due to the enticing growth potential of the country. However, this effect could not overpower the gap between import and exports [called the Trade Deficit]. The offsetting effect of foreign inflows strengthened till mid-2008 (the rupee was once comfortably trading at 39. 15 INR/USD) when the banking crisis unfolded in the US leading to recession. Though commentators say that emerging economies like India and China were the least hit by the recession (in terms of output) (Ghosh Chandrasekhar, 2009), the crisis took its toll on the INR. With the flight of foreign funds to safer haven currencies and better investment opportunities, the INR had no other choice but to fall. You read "Impacts of Rupee Appreciation/Depreciation on Import" in category "Papers" However, the recent round of depreciation of the INR is peculiar in some aspects. Though there was another crisis that hit the world markets, i. e. the Euro zone crisis, there was considerable lag in the effect, with the Euro zone crisis started looming as early as late-2010, the INR’s depreciation is felt only in August 2011. Major reasons behind this depreciation can be listed [in decreasing order of importance] as follows: * Outflow of funds (and/or) Impeded inflow. *   Ã‚  Ã‚  Increasing Current Account Deficit [CAD] *   Ã‚  Recovery of USD and Japanese Yen [JPY] – the long-term safe haven currencies. *   Ã‚  Ã‚  Lack of intervention from RBI FALLING RUPEE AGAINST DOLLAR 011 was the year of great stress for Indian Rupee. It has lost greater than 10 % of its value in the year 2011, making it one of the worst performing currencies in Asia. Logic says rupee appreciation shows the Indian economy is strengthening against US economy and depreciation makes the economy weaker. Overseas funds sold more than US$500 million worth of Indian-listed shar es over the last 5 years, reducing net income for 2011 to less than US$300 million – a tiny sum compared with record investments of greater than US$29 billion earned last year, on November 21, 2011 alone. According to Federal Bank report, the premium banks pay to borrow dollars overnight from central banks will fall by half a percentage point to 50 basis points. The move was coordinated with the monetary authorities in Canada, the U. K, Japan and Switzerland and the Central Bank of Europe. ROLE OF GOVERNMENT OF INDIA AND RESERVE BANK OF INDIA The exchange rate is a significant tool used to examine the efficiency of economy. The exchange rate of the Indian rupee is dependent upon the market conditions, where the demand and supply play a major role. In order to adopt the effective exchange rates the RBI makes buy and sell transactions to keep the low variability and volatility in exchange rates. RBI also removes the excess liquidity from the economy by increasing the CRR and SLR. The Government of India also managed floating exchange rate mechanism. This means that the Indian government interferes only when the circumstances demand and/or if the exchange rate gets out of control by increasing or reducing the money supply. Hedging: Using forwards and futures contracts help in mitigating the risks arise due to exchange rate fluctuations. This process is known as Hedging, but none-the-less the impact is substantial. Reduce Trade Deficit: The main factors for the depreciation of rupee are slowdown in capital flows, high trade and current account deficit and high crude oil prices. To stop fluctuations in rupee it is necessary to reduce these deficits. RBI Control Policy: When rupee depreciates, it results in a price hike in the petroleum products and fertilizers. This increases the inflation. This becomes a challenging period for RBI. If they increase the key rates, it will affect our growth rate and there will be stock market crash. If it is not, inflation will kill the normal public. As per analysts, say the rupee depreciation is considered as a short-term scenario. The Indian market will be a good destination for FIIs in years to come. Huge investment is expected in the coming years. Gradually the rupee will gain its value. Investors need not worry about the rupee depreciation. Since March 2010, Reserve Bank of India [RBI] hiked the interest rates 13 times and thus compromising on growth. RBI’s interest rates hikes seemed futile since the inflation was due to supply falling short rather than the demand rising. Both inflation and RBI’s action reduced the color of the vibrant economy once India displayed in 2007-2008. According to intelligence reports by the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India, sectors of India Exports are as follows- Sector of Import| Share in Total Imports| Petroleum| 77| Heavy Engineering Goods| 22| Pharmaceuticals| 19| The sectors of Import gain if the rupee appreciates. They would have to pay less for the imported raw materials, which would increase their profit margins. Likewise, depreciation in rupee value makes exports cheaper and imports expensive. Exports from India are of handicrafts, gems, jewelry, textiles, ready-made garments, industrial machinery, leather products, chemicals and related products. Since the 1990s, India is the world’s largest processor of diamonds. The mentioned export items contribute substantially to foreign receipts. During the periods when the dollar was moving high against the rupee, exporters stood to gain, when $1 = Rs. 48, was getting them Rs. 4800 for every $100. Since the beginning of the year 2007, rupee appreciated by about 10%. With its value of rupee Rs. 39. 35 = $1 as on 16 Nov 2007, for every $100, exporters would get only Rs. 3935. This difference is towing away the profit margins of exporters and BPO service providers alike. Imports to India are of petroleum products, capital goods, chemicals, dyes, plastics, pharmaceuticals, iron and steel, uncut precious stones, fertilizers, pulp paper etc. With the same scenario as given for export, if we analyze – an importer is paying Rs. 3935 now instead of Rs. 4800 paid during yester years for every $100. This gain on FX is likely to create savings in cost, which could be passed on to consumers, thereby contributing to control inflation Exhibit showing the quarterly values of Foreign Investment Flows in India Source:  Public Debt Management Quarterly Report (July-September 2011), Ministry of Finance, November 2011 CONCLUSION:- Conclusively, appreciation and depreciation of rupee cannot certainly be taken as beneficial to the Indian economy in general. On one hand, the rupee appreciation will affect exporters, BPOs, etc. , on the other, rupee depreciation will affect importers. So now, it depends on what the future has to reveal for, how effectively the central bank can balance the FX rates with little impact to the relative areas of FX usage. Though RBI is trying its level best in controlling inflation, due to the inherent supply-driven nature of the inflation, monetary controls remain as futile attempts. Systemic inefficiencies, like improper supply chains, must be immediately addressed by the Government to stall inflation. RBI has already done the damage by ruthlessly increasing the base rates and thus compromising the growth and discouraging investments. In order to control currency depreciation, any central bank is expected to hike the interest rates. Since the prevailing interest rates have already reached a high, RBI is helpless in managing the exchange rates through interest rate hike. Another option left with RBI is to use its foreign exchange reserves to sell dollars in the currency market to improve the value of INR. Though RBI’s argument of non-intervention is justified (Gokarn, 2011), it must strike the right balance between intervention and controlled-intervention. Generally, foreign exchange reserves deplete because of daily operations of central banks in the wake of domestic currency depreciation. Considering all the above factors, is the way ahead gloomy for the Indian rupee? Well, nothing can be told so surely in this uncertain environment. The market sentiments truly drove the INR to the edge. The INR may correct itself and settle in a lower value than that is prevailing currently as the market sentiments fade out. On the other hand, tight monetary control by the RBI, which led to high interest rates, widened the interest rate differential thus inviting inflows. Overselling of rupee than that is necessary might have caused the slide in the value of INR. If the rupee starts rebounding, it would definitely start yielding high results due to the low base effect. Therefore, if the rupee is actually oversold, investors who are confident about the resilient Indian economy might put their money on the rupee since no other asset would give such high returns in this current scenario. However, there are conditions attached to the argument – rupee must bounce back and foreign inflows must find their way back into the Indian economy. How to cite Impacts of Rupee Appreciation/Depreciation on Import, Papers

Pressure Distribution Around Symmetrical Aerofoilc free essay sample

Pressure Distribution around a Symmetric Aerofoil Abstract: The following report is based on an experiment conducted to calculate the lift curve slope for a symmetrical aerofoil subjected to varying angles of attack. Pressure readings were taken at different points on the upper and lower surface of the aerofoil. The report concludes that maximum lift is generated between 12 ? -15? , which is also the stall point. It also states that region close to the leading edge contributes most to the lift force. Introduction:This experiment is designed to measure the static pressure distribution around a symmetric aerofoil, find the normal force and hence to determine the lift- curve slope. For zero angle of attack the pressure distribution is symmetrical around the aerofoil. Increasing the angle of attack (lifting the leading edge) increases the velocity of airflow hence decreases the air pressure on the upper-surface. The opposite happens on the lower-surface where high pressure is created. We will write a custom essay sample on Pressure Distribution Around Symmetrical Aerofoilc or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This difference in pressure creates a force normal to the chord line in the direction of lower pressure, this force is called lift.As the angle of attack increases so does the lift until at a particular angle the airflow on the upper-surface is cut-off. This dramatically increases the drag and decreases the lift. The Experiment: Aerofoil of chord length 3. 5† is mounted inside a wind tunnel running at a suitable at a suitable wind speed. Pressure at different points on the surface of the aerofoil is measured using wall tappings. These tappings are connected to a multi-tube manometer. The dynamic pressure is measure using the tunnel reference pressure (hs) and atmospheric pressure (ha).Pressure readings will be taken for angles of attack from -1 ° to 16 ° at intervals of 5 °. Theory: The Pressure coefficient can be calculated from the manometer readings as follows: [pic] Where h is the reading for the tapping being considered, ha is the atmospheric pressure reading and hs is the static pressure in the tunnel working section. The tunnel speed can be determined using: [pic] Where ? is the angle of inclination of the manometer to the horizontal, ? m is the density if the manometer fluid (usually about 830 kg/m3) and ? is the density of air. Density of air can be calculated as follows: [pic]Initial Gradient of the Curve (CL/? ) = 0. 071 Discussion: Graphs 1-6 show how the coefficients of pressure CP vary at different positions on the surface of aerofoil as the Angle of attack, ? is altered. The values for Hole 2 have been linearly interpolated as they seem to give abnormal values consistently for all angles of attack. These flier values can be clearly observed on graphs 8-13 in the appendices. These values could have resulted due to a blockage in tube 2. Linear interpolation method corrects these values by taking into consideration the previous and the next value to the value with error, and finds the average of the two.Stagnation point is where CP value is +1. For the experiment, it occurs only when the angle of attack is -4?. It exists on the upper surface close to the leading edge. The Flow separation point is where the pressure distribution on the upper surface becomes constant. In this experiment this occurs when the angle of attack is 16?. This means that the flow cuts off and thus the pressure is almost the same as the atmospheric pressure, which means there in so suction. Another observation made during the test was that the wall tappings started swirling rigorously as the angle was increased; this uggests that the flow became turbulent on the upper surface. From the graphs above it can be seen that maximum suction for all the angles (except -4? ) exists at Hole 1, which is 1. 27 mm from the leading edge on the upper surface. The angle of attack at which most suction is achieved is 11? where the CP value reaches -3. 0; and it increases as the angle of attack is increased or decreased from 11?. The CP values at the trailing edge vary for different angles. They all range between 0 and -0. 5. It is maximum at -4? and 0? while it is minimum at 16?.